Mafómedes used to be complete inaccessible in the winter

The Celts passed through this region, leaving behind its art and religion, the so-called Cultura aos Berrões. One of these Celtic tribes, the Zoelae, were responsible for settling many of the lands along the Douro, Sabor and Angueira Rivers.

During the Roman period, the region is referred to in art, religion and socio-economic reports, indicating its regional importance.The Ara Romana to Deus Jupiter Depulsori (which still survives to this day in Saldanha), is one of these remnants of this period (it was constructed during the reign of Septimius Severus in the 3rd century BC). Throughout the municipality that are have been discovered many funerary stones and artefacts that attest the Romanization of these lands.

Vestiges of the Visigothic era are rare, but include a paleo-Christian inscription that was discovered in São Martinho do Peso (now in the Abade de Baçal Museum in Bragança.

Moorish influence in this region is limited to local handicrafts made from flax and wool, that includes the hand embroidery, quilts, rugs and towels. During the Reconquista era, it is known that Alfonso III of León effected many construction projects during his reign, that were more strategic then political: organizing a military line along the Douro with castles (to protect the holdings of the León while inducing incursions into Moorish lands, populating conquered territory and taking advantage of natural geography to defend his territory. After fortifying Zamora, around 893, he ordered the construction of castles along the line, repopulating them as he progressed. Toro and Simancasdeveloped consequently from this policy. It is likely that the area of Mogadouro was settled as a strategic point along the line, resulting in the construction of the first fort. The regions name evolved from this settlement: Mógo means a implanted marker, considered a symbolic delineation of the separation or division of a territory, a term imported from common language at the time. The mógo do Douro (mark on the Douro), or Mogadouro, developed from this locational designation.

The Castle of Penas Róias was constructed during the nation-building of Afonso Henriques. The stone of the cell-block tower is inscribed with a medieval statement:“Começaram os fundamentos do Castelo chamadao Pena Roia na era de 1204 sendo Mestre Geral dos Templários Gualdim Pais” [They began the fundamentals of the Castle Pena Roia in the era of 1204 by Master General of the Templar Gualdim Pais]. The later Castle of Modagouro, from the same decade, was started prior to the establishment of the civic charter (foral) in 1272/73. During the Portuguese dynastic crisis (or Interregnum) the noble classes supported the King of Castile, resulting in an eventual reprisal by Prince John (who elevated the hamlet of Azinhoso and parsed it from Mogadouro). Consequently, although its economic activity did not contract, the lack of royal patronage meant that Mogadouro remained stagnated until the 16th century.

Mogadouro, historically, fell within the Caminhos de Santiago, a capillary of secondary roadways that extended throughout the Trás-os-Montes region leading pilgrims down Saint James Way. The principal road arrived in Mogadouro from Castelo Rodrigo, from two routes: from Freixo de Espada à Cinta (Castelo Rodrigo, Figueira de Castelo Rodrigo, Escalhão, crossing the Douro by boat in Barca de Alva, Quinta de Santiago, Freixo de Espada à Cinta, Mós, Fornos, Lagoaça, Bruçó, Mogadouro); the other from Moncorvo (Castelo Rodrigo, Figueira de Castelo Rodrigo, Almendra, Castelo Melhor, Vila Nova de Foz Côa, crossing the Douro by boat in Pocinho, Moncorvo, Vilariça, Adeganha, Parada, here crossing the Sabor in Santo Antão da Barca before reaching Mogadouro). The Caminho de Santiago forked in Mogadouro at the Chapel of Nossa Senhora do Caminho (Caminho de Santigao): to Azinhoso (a enormous enclosure existed near the Church of Azinhoso to provide shelter during the crossing), then over a medieval bridge that connected Penas Roias, Algoso, Vimioso to Bragança; the other road departed from the Church of Nossa Senhora do Caminho, to Santiago, then Algosinho (to another pilgrimage church), Ventoselo (where there still remains vestiges of the pilgrimages, such as the roof painting in the Chapel of Nossa Senhor da Boa Morte), on the way passing by a spring (where pilgrimages would satisfy their thurst), to another chapel to Santigao (now completely destroyed), Urrós, Sendim, and Miranda do Douro). There were several tributaries, shortcuts and dirt tracks on the pilgrim roadways, such as: through Azinhoso (where the faithful would rest in the chapel to São Gonçalo, a patron saint of the travellers); through Variz, Castanheira, Valcerto, Algoso, Campo de Víboras and Vimioso; through Santiago (now Vila de Ala), an important crossroads between Peredo de Bemposta (through Algosinho, Ventoselo and Vila de Ala) and Bemposta (through Lamoso, Tó and Vila de Ala). Those who travelled from the southern part of the district would likely stop in Zava (where a chapel to São Cristóvão, the saint protector, was located).

It was after the 16th century that Mogadouro saw some growth. The Távora family, a noble house with influence and power in court, controlled the region, commanding the fort and guiding the town, generally contributing to the development of the lands within their domain.^[3] It was through the action of the Távoras that the local Santa Casa da Misericórdia was founded in 1559, and its local church. The bridges between Valverde and Meirinhos (in 1677), and the Remondes bridge, between Mogadouro and Macedo de Cavaleiros (in 1678) were also constructed with the patronage of the Távoras. In addition, the family supported the constructions of a few churches and altars in various municipalities throughout the 17th–18th century, including the Convent of São Francisco, the Matriz Church of Mogadouro, the Chapel of Nossa Senhora da Ascensão, in the heights of Serra da Castanheira and many others. But, by act of King Joseph I the Távoras lands were confiscated by the Marquess of Pombal, and members of the family executed after anattempted-assassination of the monarch. The annilhation of the family resulted in the loss of development impetus.^[3]

The municipal archive, installed in the Convent of São Francisco (today the Mogadouro Municipal Chamber) burned down in 1881 (and again later in 1927).

After the extinction of the monastic orders, by the Liberal government, the Convent of São Francisco was appropriated to store public records and local administration.

By the 19th century, few of the noble families were interested in their holdings in Mogadouro, nor did they do much to develop these lands. By the end of the 20th century, only the poet-jurist José Francisco Trindade Coelho defended his land rights, and the region was abandoned by the central hierarchy of Lisbon.

The Sabor line, a narrow gauge railway, served the community between 1930 and 1988.

From 1296 to 1301, the Kingdom of León was again independent and after the re-union with Castile remained a kingdom until 1833, but as part of a united Spain. In the Royal Decree of 30 November 1833, the Kingdom of León was considered one of the Spanish regions and divided into the provinces of León, Zamora and Salamanca. In 1978, these three provinces of the region of León were included along with six provinces of the historic region of Old Castile to create the autonomous community ofCastile and León.

The city of León was founded by the Roman Seventh Legion (usually written as Legio Septima Gemina (“twin seventh legion”). It was the headquarters of that legion in the late empire and was a centre for trade in gold, which was mined at Las Médulas nearby. In 540, the city was conquered by the Arian Visigothic king Liuvigild, who did not harass the already well-established Roman Catholic population. In AD 717, León fell again, this time to the Moors. However, León was one of the first cities retaken during the Christian reconquest of the Iberian peninsula, and became part of the Kingdom of Asturias in AD 742.

León was a small town during this time, but one of the few former Roman cities in the Kingdom of Asturias which still held significance (the surviving Roman walls bear the medieval walling upon them). During Visigothic times, the city had served as a bishopric, and incorporating the city into Asturias brought legitimacy to the Asturian monarchs who sought to lead a unified Iberian church, during a time when most of the Iberian Peninsula was governed by Muslim powers.

Foundation of Kingdom of Leon

León was created as a separate kingdom when the Asturian king, Alfonso the Great, divided his realm among his three sons. León was inherited by García I (911–914). His successor was Ordoño II of León (914–924), who moved the capital of the kingdom of Astures to León.

Ordoño II of León was also a military leader who brought military expeditions from León south to Seville, Córdoba, and Guadalajara, in the heart of the Muslim territory.

After a few years of civil wars during the reign of Fruela II, Alfonso Fróilaz and Alfonso IV, Ramiro II (931–951) assumed the throne and brought stability to the kingdom. A brave military chief who defeated the Muslim armies in their own territory, Ramiro’s expeditions turned the Valley of the Douro into a no-man’s land that separated Christian kingdoms in the north of Iberia from the Muslim states in the south. Ramiro II was nicknamed “The Devil” by Muslims because of his great military skill.

As the Leonese troops advanced they were followed by a process of repoblación, which consisted of repopulating the Meseta high plains, with people coming from Galicia and especially from Asturias and León. This migration of Leonese peoples greatly influenced the Leonese language. During the repoblación period, there arose a distinct form of art known as Mozarabic art. Mozarabic art is a mixing of Visigoth, Islamic, and Byzantine elements. Notable examples of the Mozarabic style are the Leonese churches of San Miguel de Escaladaand Santiago de Peñalba.

During the early 10th century, León expanded to the south and east, securing territory that became the County of Burgos. Fortified with numerous castles, Burgos remained within Leon until the 930s, at which time Count Ferdinand II of Castile began a campaign to expand Burgos and make it independent and hereditary. He took for himself the title Count of Castile, in reference to the many castles of the territory (around Burgos), and continued expanding his area at the expense of León by allying with the Caliphate of Córdoba, until AD 966, when he was defeated by Sancho I of León.

The Kingdom of León continued to be the most important of all those of the Iberian Peninsula. However, Sancho III of Navarre (1004–1035) took over Castile in the 1020s, and added León in the last year of his life, leaving Galicia to temporary independence. In the division of lands which followed his death, his son Fernando succeeded to the county of Castile. Two years later, in 1037, he conquered León and Galicia. For nearly 30 years, until his death in 1065, he ruled over a combined kingdom of León-Castile as Ferdinand I of León. In these clashes in an impoverished and isolated culture, where salt-making and a blacksmith’s forge counted as industries, the armies that decided the fate of the kingdoms numbered in the hundreds of fighting men.

Early in its existence, León lay directly to the north of the wealthy, sophisticated, and powerful Caliphate of Córdoba. When internal dissensions divided Al-Andalus loyalties in the 11th century, leading to an age of smaller Taifa successor states of the Caliphate, the impoverished Christian kingdoms who had been sending tribute to the Caliphate found themselves in a position to demand payments (parias) instead, in return for favours to particular factions or as simple extortion.

Thus, though scarcely influenced by the culture of the successor territories of the former Caliphate, Ferdinand I followed the example of the counts of Barcelona and the kings of Aragon and he became hugely wealthy from the parias of the Taifas. When he died in 1065, his territories and the parias were split among his three sons, of whom Alfonso emerged the victor in the classic fratricidal strife common to feudal successions.

Few in Europe would have known of this immense new wealth in a kingdom so isolated that its bishops had virtually no contact with Rome, except that Ferdinand and his heirs (the kings of León and Castile) became the greatest benefactors of the Abbey of Cluny, where Abbot Hugh (died 1109) undertook construction of the huge third abbey church, the cynosure of every eye. The Way of Saint James called pilgrims from Western Europe to the supposed tomb of Saint James the Great in Santiago de Compostela, and the large hostels and churches along the route encouraged building in the Romanesque style.

Alfonso VI was one of the most important kings of León of the Middle Ages. He assumed control of first León, and later Castile and Galicia, when his brother died attacking the Leonese city of Zamora. He was crowned Emperor of Spain and received the honoring of all the kings of the Iberian Peninsula.

The taking of Toledo, the old Visigoth capital, in 1085 by Alfonso VI of León was a turning point in the development of León and Castile and the first major milestone in theReconquista. Christian Mozarabs from Al-Andalus had come north to populate the deserted frontier lands, and the traditional view of Spanish history has been that they brought with them the remains of Visigothic and Classical culture, and a new ideology of Reconquista, a crusade against the Moors. Modern historians see the fall of Toledo as marking a basic change in relations with the Moorish south, turning from the simple extortion of annual tribute to outright territorial expansion. Alfonso VI was drawn into local politics by strife within Toledo and inherited the political alliances of the city-state. He found himself faced with problems unfamiliar to him, such as appointing and dealing with a Catholicbishop in Toledo and the settling of garrisons in the small Muslim strongholds, the taifas, which were dependent on Toledo and which often bought the king’s favour with gold from their trade with Al-Andalus and the Maghreb. Alfonso VI thus found his role as a Catholic king redefined as he governed large cities with sophisticated urban, Muslim subjects and growing Christian populations.

The two kingdoms of León and Castile were split in 1157, when a major defeat for Alfonso VII of Castile weakened the authority of Castile.

Alfonso IX did not want his kingdom to disappear upon his death and designated his heirs as Sancha and Dulce, the daughters of his first wife. When Alfonso IX died in 1230, his son by Berenguela of Castile, Ferdinand III of Castile, invaded León and assumed the crown. He thus became the first joint sovereign of both kingdoms since the death of Alfonso VII in 1157. The isolated Atlantic province, the County of Portugal, separated to become the Kingdom of Portugal.

The union between León and Castile was never accepted by Leonese people. King Ferdinand III needed 2 years to suffocate the independentist revolts in the Kingdom of León. So, his son Alfonso X returned the independence of the Kingdom of León, but it was not respected by Sancho IV. His brother John waited until 1296, when Sancho was dead, to be crowned as John I, King of León, Galicia and Sevilla. In 1301 he abdicated and the king of Castile assumed the Crown of León, joining both kingdoms.

Though the kings of Castile and León initially continued to take the title King of León as the superior title, and to use a lion as part of their standard, power in fact became centralized in Castile, as exemplified by the Leonese language’s replacement by Spanish. The Kingdom of León and the Kingdom of Castile kept different Parliaments, different flags, different coin and different laws until the Modern Era, when Spain, like other European states, centralized governmental power.

The Kingdom of León coexisted as a personal union under the Crown of Castile, with León possessing separate institutions, such as its own cortes, the Real Adelantamiento of the Kingdom of León, the Merino mayor of León, among others, many of which lasted until the 19th century. The Castilian monarchs, however, soon began a process of unifying the laws of the two kingdoms, as exemplified by the Siete Partidas. By the 16th century, León became a captaincy-general.

In the 19th century, the Kingdom of León declared war, together with Galicia and Asturias, against France, and organised the Junta General del Reino de León as its own government. The modern region of the Kingdom of León was established in 1833^[2] and was divided into León, Zamora, and Salamanca provinces.

At present, León is composed of the provinces of León, Zamora, and Salamanca, is now part of the autonomous community of Castile and León within the modern Kingdom of Spain.

Political parties representing “Leonesismo”, the Leonese regionalist and nationalist movements, support the creation of an autonomous community separate from Castile. Leonesist parties gained 13.6% of votes cast in the León autonomic elections in 2007. There have also been initiatives approved by some Leonese city councils to establish aNUTS-2 (European Statistical Region) for León.

The Leonese Kingdom was an independent kingdom in the Middle Ages, keeping its status as a kingdom under the Spanish rule until the 1833 territorial division of Spain. The languages of León are the Leonese language and Spanish in Spain and the Leonese and Portuguese in Portugal.

A variety of Leonese called Mirandese (mirandês) is spoken in the Miranda do Douro Region of Portugal.

There are Leonese minorities in the District of Bragança (Portugal) that maintain Leonese culture and Leonese language, mainly in the northwest (Riodonor, Guadramil) and in the Land of Miranda, where a Leonesedialect known as Mirandês was officially recognised by the Parliament of Portugal.

The Leonese language developed from Vulgar Latin with contributions from the pre-Roman languages spoken in the Spanish provinces of León, Zamora, and Salamanca and in some villages in the District of Bragança, Portugal. Close to Mirandese and Asturian or Bable, it belongs to the Astur-Leonese subgroup of Iberian languages.

Leonese was the official language of the Leonese Kingdom in the Middle Ages and achieved a high codification grade. The first written text in Leonese was Nodicia de Kesos (959 or 974).

Its precarious situation as a minority language has driven Leonese to near extinction; it is considered a seriously endangered language by UNESCO. There are ongoing language revival efforts to try to get the urban population interested in the language. There is the Leonese Council that promotes the language, and the municipalities of Zamora, Coyanza, Mansilla de las Mulas or La Bañeza have promoted the teaching of Leonese.

This is particularly the Renaissance portal with Baroque elements on the north side facade. In the center, we can see a niche with a Virgin of Milk with the Child. The interior is very decorated, especially the triumphal arch with the arms of the city, the high altar of gilt century. XVIII and the side altarpieces from the same period.

It is worth visiting the sacristy of the century. XVII, where we found an ornate chest of drawers with high quality oil paintings depicting scenes from the life of St. Francis of Assis and St. Ignatius. In the painted ceiling repeats St. Ignatius the subject.

The Renaissance cloister, with two floors, retains its original structure.

Artefacts discovered in the region of Chaves identify the earliest settlement of humans dating back to the Paleolithic. Remnants discovered in Mairos, Pastoria and São Lourenço, those associated with transient proto-historic settlements andcastros, show a human presence in the Alto Tâmega dating to the Chalcolithic.^[4] The region has seen persistent human settlement since Roman legions conquered and occupied the fertile valley of the Tâmega River, constructing a nascent outpost and taking over the existing castros in the area. The settlement was located at the convergence of three important Roman roads: the Bracara Augusta, Asturica, and Lamecum that crossed the Roman Province of Gallaecia, linking Rome to the region’s natural resources. It was a military centre known for its baths, which lasted until the 16th century. This civilization constructed protective walls to protect the local population; spanned the river with the bridge; promoted the baths (with its warm medicinal waters); exploited local mines and alluvial deposits and other natural resources. Its importance led to the urban nucleus being elevated to the status ofmunicipality in 79 AD, during the reign of the first Flavian Caesar, Titus Flavius Caesar Vespasianus Augustus. Its benefactor consequently influenced its toponymy, becoming known as Aquae Flaviae. Artefacts from the area around the Matriz church indicate that Aquae Flaviae’s centre was located in this place, in addition to an ancient headstone showing gladiatorial combat.

Rome’s hegemony lasted until the 3rd century, when, successively, the proto-Germanic tribes of the Suebi, Visigoths andAlani colonized the imperial settlements of Chaves. Wars between Remismund and Frumar followed over their claims to the throne, which almost completely destroyed the village (it was settled in favour of Frumar, who imprisoned Idácio, the notable Bishop of Chaves).^[4] Ironically, the Romans were complicit in Aquae Flaviae’s near destruction. Barbarian dominion lasted until the Moors invaded from North Africa, defeating the Visigoth King Roderic at the beginning of the 8th century.

In course, the name of Aquae Flaviae began to disappear, being supplanted by the more Hispanic-sounding Aquae Calidae(English: hot waters).

Arab rule of the Iberian peninsula forced many Christians to escape from Chaves into the mountains in the northwest. Battles between the Christians and Muslim forces then continued until the 11th century, when Alfonso V of León reconquered the territory. After finally defeating the last vestiges of Moorish influence, he reconstructed, settled and encircled the settlement of Chaves with walls, in addition to establishing a Jewish quarter in the community. It was in the reign of Afonso I of Portugal that it was taken fromLeón and firmly integrated into the Kingdom of Portugal domain (1160). Owing to its geographic location (on Portugal’s northern frontier with Spain), King Denis, ordered the construction of a castle to protect the kingdom’s border.

During the reign of Afonso II, when the king continued to provoke the ire of the Papacy, Portuguese knights attacked the Galician tenancy of his half-brother Martin Sanches (who lived in the kingdom of Alfonso IX of León), possibly since the Bishop of Braga had estates in that region. Provoking Sanches to invade northern Portugal.^[9] The Leonese fought battles in Barcelos, Braga and Guimarães, where they defeated Portuguese forces, before retiring to Galicia with their spoils.^[9] At the same time, Alfonso IX of León seized Chaves, which remained in Leonese hands until the reign of King Sancho II, when he and Ferdinand III met in 1230/1231. This was likely a self-serving decision on Fernando’s part, as he was fearful that Leonese barons would support Sancho against him. Alfonso IX continued to occupy Chaves as a method of ensuring his wife, Teresa, would be able to enjoy her properties in Portugal.^[10]

During the Portuguese Interregnum, the nobility of Chaves supported Beatrice of Portugal, as she was heir presumptive to King Ferdinand I, since he left no male heirs. The potential loss of independence of Portugal, through her marriage to John I of Castile resulted in the rebellion by the Master of the Order of Aviz (later King John I of Portugal), who would garner the support of the Portuguese Cortes, thus laying the seeds for his triumph at the Battle of Aljubarrota. Yet, many nobles refused to break their oaths of fielty to Beatrice (including in Chaves), necessitating John’s travel to Porto in force and scaring the nobles of Chaves and Bragança into capitulating.

The remnants of the Roman baths, and the houses used to assist the invalid, were demolished by the Count of Mesquitella at the end of the 17th century, in order to reinforce the defense of Chaves.

French forces invaded and attacked in 1807, during the Siege of Chaves, part of the Peninsular Wars. On 7 March 1808, Soult’s forces invaded northern Portugal to remove British forces from Iberia. BrigadierFrancisco Silveira was charged with the defense of Chaves, but his 6000 men were unable to support its defense, and quickly abandoned the castle.^[14] An attempt to defend Chaves by Francisco Pizarro was futile, and the city surrendered to French forces shortly after the engagement. With too many troops to imprison Soult released many under oath, in order to continue the attack on the main forces who had retreated to the south.^[14] But Francisco Silveira did not quit, and as the main French went on to defeat the Anglo-Portuguese alliance at the First Battle of Porto, Silveira retook Chaves.

On 20 September 1837, the Convention of Chaves, which followed the Battle of Ruivães and which ended Chartist or Marshall’s Revolt, was signed in Chaves.^[4] Chaves was also a site of various religious apparitions, during the decade of 1830, eventually resulting in the construction of the Santuário da Nossa Senhora Aparecida (Portuguese: Sanctuary of Our Lady Revealed).

On 8 July 1912, forces loyal to the former monarchy, under the command of Henrique Paiva Couceiro, confronted government forces, commanded by Colonel Ribeiro de Carvalho, during the second monarchist incursion.

On 12 March 1929, the town of Chaves was elevated to the category of city.

]]> https://www.trasosmontes.theperfecttourist.com/?feed=rss2&p=3276 0 https://www.trasosmontes.theperfecttourist.com/?p=3273 https://www.trasosmontes.theperfecttourist.com/?p=3273#comments Sat, 04 Apr 2015 15:14:05 +0000 http://trasosmontes.theperfecttourist.com/?p=3273 The Montesinho Natural Park is one of the largest protected areas in Portugal, extending for more than 75 000 hectares and with an altitude of 1500 meters.

The vast forests create habitats for many species, including the wolf, boar and the golden eagle.

Throughout the park, you can visit many villages that offer a fascinating combination of human and natural landscapes. The park is ideal for hiking.

Presents a heterogeneous relief, with wavy plateaus cut by deep deep valleys and some mountains, of which the two most important are the Sierra de Montesinho, north of Bragança, and the mountains of the Coroa, north of Vinhais. Altitudes range from 1486 meters, Sierra de Montesinho and 438 meters in the riverbed Mente.

In it there is extensive biodiversity dwelling species such as the Iberian wolf, the doe or the deer. The vast forests create habitats for many species, including the boar and the golden eagle.

The PNM converges to the north with Spain, crossing the border communities of Galicia and Castile-Leon, and west and this also with Spain (Galicia and Castile-Leon, respectively). In the West it is for soon border with Chaves municipality, and the south remains inserted in the municipalities of Vinhais and Bragança.

Mirandese has a distinct phonology, morphology and syntax, and has been distinct at least since the formation of Portugal in the 12th century. It has its roots in the spoken Latin of the north of the Iberian Peninsula (Portuguese developed in the northwest).

It is a descendant of the ancient Astur-Leonese language of northern Iberia, the last remnant of the ancient language of the Kingdom of León, and closely related to the modern Astur-Leonese languages in Spain. However, these amalgamations in the Spanish territory did not affect Mirandese, which preserves distinct linguistic differences in relation to both Portuguese and Spanish. It shares a great deal of lexicon with regional Portuguese dialects.

In the 19th century, José Leite de Vasconcelos described it as “the language of the farms, of work, home, and love between the Mirandese”. Since 1986–87 it has been taught to students between the ages of 10 and 11, and so is recovering.

Today Mirandese retains fewer than 5,000 speakers (but the number can be up to 15,000 if counting second-language speakers) in the villages of the Municipality of Miranda do Douro and in some eastern villages (e.g. Vilar Seco and Angueira; in Caçarelhos, it is considered recently extinct) of the Municipality of Vimioso, and some linguistic influence can be observed at other villages of the municipality of Vimioso and the municipalities of Mogadouro, Macedo de Cavaleiros and Bragança.

Three variants of the Mirandese language exist: Border Mirandese (Mirandés Raiano), Central Mirandese (Mirandés Central) and Sendinese (Sendinés). Most speakers of Mirandese also speak Portuguese; some of these speak Spanish as well.

The main differences between Mirandese in Portugal and the Astur-Leonese languages in Spain are caused by the dominant languages in each region. Mirandese has been influenced phonetically and in lexicon by Portuguese and the Astur-Leonese languages in Spain by Spanish (Castilian). All have distinctive orthography that phonetically reflects the respective main national languages. Another difference is that Mirandese and Leonese remain very conservative, while Asturian has undergone a greater amount of change.